Creation of the World

In the begining there was only chaos. Then out of the void appeared Erebus, the unknowable place where death dwells, and Night. All else was empty, silent, endless, darkness. Then somehow Love was born bringing a start of order. From Love came Light and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea, the earth appeared. 

Then Erebus slept with Night, who gave birth to Ether, the heavenly light, and to Day the earthly light. Then Night alone produced Doom, Fate, Death, Sleep, Dreams, Nemesis, and others that come to man out of darkness. 

Meanwhile Gaea alone gave birth to Uranus, the heavens. Uranus became Gaea's mate covering her on all sides. Together they produced the three Cyclopes, the three Hecatoncheires, and twelve Titans. 

However, Uranus was a bad father and husband. He hated the Hecatoncheires. He imprisoned them by pushing them into the hidden places of the earth, Gaea's womb. This angered Gaea and she ploted against Uranus. She made a flint sickle and tried to get her children to attack Uranus. All were too afraid except, the youngest Titan, Cronus. 

Gaea and Cronus set up an ambush of Uranus as he lay with Gaea at night. Cronus grabed his father and castrated him, with the stone sickle, throwing the severed genitales into the ocean. The fate of Uranus is not clear. He either died, withdrew from the earth, or exiled himself to Italy. As he departed he promised that Cronus and the Titans would be punished. From his spilt blood came the Giants, the Ash Tree Nymphs, and the Erinnyes. From the sea foam where his genitales fell came Aphrodite. 

Cronus became the next ruler. He imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus. He married his sister Rhea, under his rule the Titans had many offspring. He ruled for many ages. However, Gaea and Uranus both had prophesied that he would be overthrown by a son. To avoid this Cronus swallowed each of his children as they were born. Rhea was angry at the treatment of the children and ploted against Cronus. When it came time to give birth to her sixth child, Rhea hid herself, then she left the child to be raised by nymphs. To concel her act she wrapped a stone in swaddling cloths and passed it off as the baby to Cronus, who swallowed it. 

This child was Zeus. He grew into a handsome youth on Crete. He consulted Metis on how to defeat Cronus. She prepaired a drink for Cronus design to make him vomit up the other children. Rhea convinced Cronus to accept his son and Zeus was allowed to return to Mount Olympus as Cronus's cupbearer. This gave Zeus the opertunity to slip Cronus the specially prepaired drink. This worked as planned and the other five children were vomitted up. Being gods they were unharmed. They were thankful to Zeus and made him their leader. 

Cronus was yet to be defeated. He and the Titans, except Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Oceanus, fought to retain their power. Atlas became their leader in battle and it looked for some time as though they would win and put the young gods down. However, Zeus was cunning. He went down to Tartarus and freed the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires. Prometheus joined Zeus as well. He returned to battle with his new allies. The Cyclopes provided Zeus with lighting bolts for weapons. The Hecatoncheires he set in ambush armed with boulders. With the time right, Zeus retreated drawing the Titans into the Hecatoncheires's ambush. The Hecatoncheires rained down hundreds of boulders with such a fury the Titans thought the mountains were falling on them. They broke and ran giving Zeus victory. 

Zeus exiled the Titans who had fought against him into Tartarus. Except for Atlas, who was singled out for the special punishment of holding the world on his shoulders. 

However, even after this victory Zeus was not safe. Gaea angry that her children had been imprisoned gave birth to a last offspring, Typhoeus. Typhoeus was so fearsome that most of the gods fled. However, Zeus faced the monster and flinging his lighting bolts was able to kill it. Typhoeus was burried under Mount Etna in Sicily. 

Much later a final challenge to Zeus rule was made by the Giants. They went so far as to attempt to invade Mount Olympus, piling mountain upon mountain in an effort to reach the top. But, the gods had grown strong and with the help of Heracles the Giants were subdued or killed.

The CreationII

Perhaps the most confusing aspect of this myth is the extensive use of names that seem difficult to non native Greek speakers to pronounce. This sometimes causes frustration and loss of track when trying to establish the continuing relationship between these characters in the birth of the world. So you have to be patient and try to associate these names with the characters and events that took place... 

It all started when Chaos, Gaia (Earth) and Eros started to mix with each other leading to the Gods. So In Greek mythology, the creation of the world starts with the creation of the different classes of Gods. in this case, Gods refers to the characters that ruled the Earth (without necessarily possessing any divine attributes) until the "real" Gods, the Olympians came. So after this brief introduction, the next step to examine in the creation of the world is the creation of the Gods (which really is the same thing, it's just that when you are interested in the creation of the world, you look at the very beginning of the creation of the Gods, while, to examine the creation of the Gods, you have to look a little deeper).

Hesiod's Theogony is one of the best introductions we have on the creation of the world. According to Hesiod, three major elements took part in the beginning of creation. Chaos, Gaia, and Eros. It is said that Chaos gave birth to Erebos and Night while Ouranos and Okeanos sprang from Gaia. Each child had a specific role, and Ouranos's duty was to protect Gaia. Later on, the two became a couple and
were the first Gods to rule the world. They had twelve children who where known as the Titans. Three others known as the Cyclopes, and the three hundred handed Giants. 
The situation from here on however wasn't too good. Ouranos wasn't too pleased with his offsprings because he saw them as a threat to his throne. After all, there would come a time when they would grow up, and perhaps challenge his command. Ouranos eventually decided that his children belonged deep inside Gaia, hidden from himself and his kingdom. Gaia who wasn't too pleased with this arrangement agreed at first, but, later on chose to give her solidarity to her children. She devised a plan to rid her children from their tyrant father, and supplied her youngest child Kronos with a sickle. She then arranged a meeting for the two in which Kronos cut off his father's genitals. The seed of Ouranos which fell into the sea gave birth to Aphrodite, while from his blood were created the Fates, the Giants, and the Meliai nymphs.
Kronos succeeded his father in taking over the throne and married his sister Rhea. He also freed his siblings and shared his kingdom with them.Okeanos was given the responsibility to rule over the sea and rivers, while Hyperion guided the Sun and the stars. And time went by... Sooner than later Kronos had his own children, and the very same fears that haunted his father came back to torment him as well.
Kronos eventually decided that the best way to deal with this problem was to swallow all his children.
However, what goes around comes around, and once again the mother decided it was time to free her children. Rhea, Kronos's wife, managed to save her youngest child, Zeus by tricking Kronos into swallowing a stone wrapped in clothes instead of Zeus himself.
The great Zeus was then brought up by the Nymphs in Mount Dikte in the island of Crete. In order to cover the sound of his crying, the Kouretes danced and clashed their shields. As Zeus entered manhood, he had the strength few dare dream of. He dethroned his father, and freed his siblings from his father's entrails. It was now Zeus's turn to rule the world...

THE HUMAN RACE

According to the myths, the immortal Gods thought that it would be interesting to create beings like them, but that were mortal. They would allow these beings to inhabit the earth. As soon as the mortals were created, Zeus, the leader of the Gods, ordered the two sons of the Titan Iapetus, Prometheus and Epimetheus, to give these beings various gifts in the hope that the mortals would evolve into interesting beings, able to amuse the Gods.
So the two brothers started to divide the gifts among themselves in order to give them to the earth's inhabitants. Epimetheus asked his brother to give out the gifts first, and was granted his wish. He gave the gift of beauty to some animals, agility on other animals, strength in others, and agility and speed to some. However, he left the human race defenseless, with no natural weapons in this new kingdom. Prometheus, who liked the human race, upon realizing what had happened, promptly distributed his own gifts to mankind. He stole reason from Athena, and thus gave reason to man. He then stole fire from the gates of Hephaestus, and gave mankind this new gift, which would keep them warm. Prometheus then became the protector of the human race, and shared with it all the knowledge he had. 
This new situation angered Zeus, for fire until know had been a gift only reserved for the Gods.Zeus did not want the human race to resemble the Gods. Zeus's next step was to punish Prometheus. And a heavy punishment it was. Zeus chained Prometheus to a peak in the caucasus which was believed to be at the end of the world. He had an eagle eat his liver every single day for thirty years. At the end of each day, Prometheus' liver would grow back again, so he would have to suffer all over again. After thirty years, Heracles (Hercules) released Prometheus from his nightmare.

THE OLYMPIANS

The Olympians refers to the twelve Gods of mount Olympus which is located in the northern central part of Greece. This mountain was believed to be sacred throughout ancient times, and, it was believed to be the highest point on earth. These Gods that ruled mount Olympus, also ruled the lives of all mankind. Each and every single God (or Goddess) had their own character and domain. Gods in mythology were very human like. They had the strengths and weaknesses of mortals (as we know them today). they were truly made to represent each and every side of human nature. They supported justice, as seen by their own point of view.
Gods even had children with mortals, which resulted in semi-gods like Hercules. The most amazing observation is how the Gods expresses human nature in its complete form. Strength, fear, unfaithfulness, love, admiration, beauty, hunting, farming, education, there was a God for every human activity and expression. These Gods weren't just ideal figures. they were beings with their own limitations. They expressed anger, jealousy and joy, just like us. Each God rules his own realm. they only true omnipotent God was Zeus, who ruled all.

What is the Triple Goddess?

The concept of a triple goddess appears in many cultures, religions, and mythologies. Essentially, a triple goddess is a goddess with three aspects, or in some cases the triple goddess may be represented by three separate individuals who are linked together and often appear together. There are a number of forms of the the triple goddess, and a number of ways to interpret her, and some people argue over the precise nature of the triple goddess in various religions.

Triple goddesses appear to be ancient, appearing in various forms in a number of religions. For example, many Greek goddesses were actually worshiped as triple goddesses, with a complex multitude of aspects. The Romans had triple goddesses as well: Diana, for example, was the goddess of the hunt, goddess of the moon, and goddess of the UnderworldIn addition to appearing in the form of a goddess, a mythological figure with a tripled aspect can also be a lesser being. The Three Fates of Greek mythology, for example, are a form of the triple goddess, as are the Three Graces. The concept of a single sacred being with many facets also appears in the form of the Christian Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.
Worship of the triple goddess may be so common in world religions because it allows religious followers to appreciate the multiple facets of a single personality or individual. The triple goddess symbolizes the complexity of women, and the fact that people are rarely as simplistic as to have only one side. The commonality of the number three in particular, rather than any other number, may be related to the fact that three is a number with powerful religious and cultural symbolism for many cultures.
Many good and evil figures in mythology appear in triads, and the number three pops up in other ways as well. For example, Cerberus, guardian of the underworld, is often depicted with three heads, and according to legend, the Buddha studied through a threefold training on the way to enlightenment. In Neopaganism, the triple goddess appears in the form of three aspects of womanhood, representing the maiden, the mother, and the crone. The maiden represents young women, full of potential and life, while the mother symbolizes a fully mature woman. The crone symbolizes elderly women and the wisdom which comes with aging.

The notion of the triple goddess is common in Greek mythology. There are several sets of three goddesses that work together: The Moirae (Fates), the Charities (Graces), and the Erinnyes (Furies). In the case of the Muses the triple plan has worked twice and so there are nine. It is felt that these are women because the goddesses in each case are presiding over life-thresholds which were from early times in the hands of women. The Fates are like midwives presiding over childbirth. The Graces are like bridesmaids at weddings. And the furies are like mourners at a funeral. And even though this is a pattern which is found in many cultures there are peculiarities of Greek myth which might be helpful for the interpretation of Greek myths.

In Greek myth there are even triple Greek gods. The sons of Cronus, Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades form such a triple. The myth of the Judgement of Paris reveals another triple, Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena. Artemis involves another triple which emphasizes the female aspect of maiden, mother, and crone (Artemis, Selene, Hecate). A lot is made of this triple but what is most important is the way the goddesses are related and the way they act and interact. One wonders, for example, if Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena, may be related in the same way. But the god triple is a division of the universe into three parts, the earth, the sky, and the oceans. You can see Aphrodite as the maiden, Hera as the mother, and Athena as the wise old crone; but the Judgement of Paris suggests that the division is one of love, honor, wisdom. These are major forces in ones life which each person must choose amongst. Paris chooses the wrong one with disasterous results.

So the mechanism that causes the tripling remains to be determined. Some say this is because 3 is a magic number. Some say it is a refinement of a concept. But it has also been suggested that it conforms to a structure of worship or perhaps the structure of a culture. An example of the second type of tripling is the children of Eris. Eris is the goddess of discord. Her children are Ponus, Lethe, Limus, Algea, Ate, and Harcus. These abstract concepts--sorrow, forgetfulness, hunger, pain, error, and the oath; are clearly concepts that clarify discord in some way. In the cultural history of the Greek religion some hints open up. It seems unlikely that the Minoans are the cause of this process since they are supposed to have worshipped one goddess, possibly Minona, a name related to Minoan. The culture was named Minoan by Arthur Evans after Minos but he may be a masculinized version of the goddess. This goddess is also referred to at the Great Mother, or perhaps an antecedent of her. Other goddesses referred to as the Great mother include Cybele, Rhea, Demeter, and Hera. It is possible that these later goddesses are just the same goddess interpreted by different cultures.

The tripling would not have occurred much after the adoption of the Greek alphabet because the writing that occurred as a result served to fix the myths and it also provided a historical record. There is no written record of the tripling. So the tripling may have been a part of the Mycenaean culture since the adoption of Greek writing occurred after their dominance. It has been suggested that the tripling resulted from the fact that the Mycenaeans had three separate classes of people and each class had its own set of deities.

The Mycenaean Deities

• Apollo -- Enyalios
• Athena -- ATANA POTINIJA
• Eileithyia -- EREUTIJA
• Dionysus
• Poseidon
• Poseida
• Erinyes
• Furies
• Winds

Artemis, Eileithyia, and Hera could have been a triple goddess as they are all associated with Childbirth. The archeological record matches Poseidon with Poseida. Early myths match Poseidon with Demeter. Our record of Mycenaean deities is obviously patchy so the data might need filling in. It is intersting to consider the six children of Rhea: Hestia ,Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. What if we put together the male triplet of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. Zeus is the mate of Hera. Poseidon is the possible mate of Demeter. This comes from a suspected etymology of the name Poseidon. The 'don' of 'Poseidon' is related to the 'de' of 'Demeter' and 'da-', 'To divide' in Indo-European. That leaves Hades to be the mate of Hecate. This is a revelation. But it makes sense because both are of the netherworld. It would seem that as Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades are a triple so Hera, Demeter and Hecate are a triple. This is interesting because it identifies Hera and Persephone as maidens. The is a story about the rape of Hera by Zeus. Likewise there is a story of the rape of Demeter (as a mare) by Poseidon. That leaves Hades raping Hecate instead of Persephone.

Ultimately the tripling may came from the Indo-European ancestral culture of the Myceneans. Ceisiwr Serith, on the page referenced here mentions Georges Dumézil's system of three functions. He states:

This theory states that Indo-European culture (and, by extension, PIE culture) was divided up into three groups, which Dumezil calls "functions." The first function is the magical-religious one. This consists of the priests and the rulers. The second function is that of the warrior. The third is that of the producers. Shan M. M. Winn has summed it up nicely in a book title: "Heaven, Heroes, and Happiness."

Triple Goddess

• Persephone - maiden Demeter - mother Hecate - Crone
• three Charites
• the three Moirae
• the three Erinnyes
• Artemis, Selene, Hecate
• Aphrodite, Hera, Athena
• An expansion of the triadic concept is that the triad can expand into an ennead, or a group of nine aspects or nine goddesses, e.g. the Nine Muses, the Nine Maidens.
• Zeus, Poseidon, Hades.

Greek Gods and Goddesses

*Aphrodite – goddess of beauty and love (Roman: Venus)

*Apollo – god of music, healing, and light (Roman: Apollo)

*Ares – god of war (Roman: Mars)

*Artemis – goddess of the moon, hunting, and the protector of women (Roman: Diana)

Asclepius – god of medicine

*Athena – goddess of wisdom, justice, art, invention, and industry (Roman: Minerva)

*Circe – a goddess well versed in sorcery, drugs, and herbs

*Demeter – goddess of the harvest and fertility (Roman: Ceres)

*Dionysus – god of wine and fertility (Roman: Bacchus)

Eileithyia – goddess of childbirth

Eirene – goddess of Peace

Enyo – goddess of war (Roman: Bellona)

Erida – goddess of hatred

*Eos – goddess of the wind, and the dawn (Roman: Aurora)

Eris – goddess of strife (Roman: Discordia)

Eros – god of love and lust (Roman: Cupid)

*Gaia – earth; mother earth; primary goddess of fertility

*Hades – god of the underworld (Roman: Pluto)

*Hebe – goddess of youth

Hectate – goddess of the moon, witchcraft, night, and the underworld

*Hephaestus – god of fire (Roman: Vulcan)

*Hera – Queen of the gods; goddess of marriage and childbirth (Roman: Juno)

*Hermes – the messenger for the gods; god of wealth, luck, and travelers (Roman: Mercury)

Hestia – goddess of the hearth and domestic joy (Roman: Vesta)

Hygeia – goddess of health

Hymen – god of weddings

Hypnos – god of sleep (Roman: Somnus)

Iris – goddess of the rainbow and messenger for the gods

Mnemosyne – goddess of memory; mother of the muses

Morpheus – god of dreams

Nemesis – goddess of moderation

Nyx – ancient goddess of night (Roman: Nox)

*Oceanus – god of the ocean

Pan – god of pastures, flocks, and shepherds (Roman: Faunus)

*Persephone – Queen of the underworld; goddess of vegetation (Roman: Proserpine)

Pontus – ancient sea god

*Poseidon – god of the sea (Roman: Neptune)

Prometheus – rebel Titan who gave fire to mortals in defiance of Zeus

Selene – goddess of the moon (Roman: Luna)

Thanatos – god of death

*Themis – goddess of laws, justice, and order

Uranus – ancient god of the sky

*Zeus – King of the gods; god of light and the sky (Roman: Jupiter/Jove)

What is the Odyssey?

The Odyssey is a tale of the voyage the Greek hero Odysseus takes at the end of the Trojan War to return to his home and family in Ithaca. This epic poem is credited to Homer, an ancient Greek poet, who is also credited with the Iliad and the entire Epic Cycle that includes poems about the Trojan War and Theban poems about Oedipus.Odysseus spends ten years of his life on this voyage, guided by his patroness Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom. While Odysseus is battling Poseidon, the Greek god of the sea, and attempting to loosen himself from the Calypso’s influence, his wife and son, Penelope and Telemachus, fight to maintain his kingdom in Ithaca. The 24 books that comprise this epic poem highlight many literary techniques and aspects of Greek mythology. Told through flashbacks and using a technique known as in medias res, the poems begin in the middle of the voyage rather than at the beginning. Colorful characters, Odysseus’s cunning tricks and the interweaving of his voyage with the events taking place in Olympus, the home of the Greek gods, and Ithaca enthrall the reader until the end, when Odysseus is reunited with his faithful wife and son.
Homer was a blind, oral poet who recited epic poetry from memory. He belonged to a group known as Homeridae. Descended from prisoners of war, members of Homeridae were given the task of remembering old tales and epics.
Many scholars doubt whether Homer was a person. It is believed that the name Homer applied to one or more poets and that no single poet was responsible for the Odyssey. Some scholars have even contended that a woman should be credited for this epic poem of great literary value. Thorough examination of the epic poem reveals a uniform style that indicates a single author. Therefore, despite many theories to the contrary, it is widely believed that Homer existed and should be credited for the Odyssey.
Much of the scholarship regarding the Odyssey focuses on its written style. It was created within an oral culture, and the way in which it was recited was changed in the 8th century by Hipparchus, an Athenian tyrant. The Odyssey became a canonical text. It also believed that Homer had the Odyssey transcribed between the 8th and 3rd century. As a written text, it is characterized by the hexameter verse, which consists of six meters with the emphasis on the second syllable that form a regular unit of rhyme. Homeric style is more highly valued that that of Virgil or Dante, mostly because of its simplicity.
The Odyssey is written as a drama and avoids much of the politics of the period, including the effects of the Trojan War. Its influence on the arts continues today. James Joyce’s Ulysses is based on the Odyssey, as is Margaret Atwood’s Penelopiad, which is written from perspective of Penelope. The movie O’ Brother Where Are Thou? is a modern adaptation of Homer’s work. The word odyssey itself has come to mean a long voyage. The educational value of this epic poem also continues. As the Odyssey was required in the education curriculum of an ancient Greek student, so it is for many contemporary students.

Who is Zeus?

In Greek mythology, Zeus is one of the most important gods. He is the king of all other gods and the ruler of Mount Olympus, which is the highest mountain in all of Greece. Furthermore, Zeus controls the sky and the power of thunder and lightning. In iconography, Zeus is often associated with the symbols of the thunderbolt, oak tree, and the eagle Not only is Zeus a powerful figure unto himself, but he is also linked by family to many other gods in the Greek mythological family tree. Zeus was the son of Cronus and Rhea. In most mythological traditions, Zeus is married to Hera. With Hera, Zeus fathered Ares, Hephaestus, and Hebe.
However, almost all myth systems agree the Zeus had numerous extramarital trysts. For example, he is believed to be the father of Aphrodite, who was the daughter of Dione. This particular mythological story was reinforced by the famous bard Homer in his epic, The Iliad. Through his affair with Demeter, Zeus sired the goddess Persephone. Furthermore, his relationship with Mnemosyne brought the Muses into the world. In most schools of mythology, Zeus is also credited for fathering Minos, Athena, Artemis, Dinoysus, Heracles, Apollo, Hermes, Perseus, and Helen.
Much Roman mythology and Etruscan mythology is in keeping with the tales of Greek mythology, Zeus also plays a role in these schools of myth. His Roman counterpart is the god Jupiter; in Etruscan mythology, he is known as Tinia. bull. In fact, Zeus is often shown holding a thunderbolt in his hand, prepared to strike down anyone who might scorn him or his brethren. In Greek art, Zeus is almost always pictures standing or striding in a powerful, daunting manner. In order to pray and pay homage to Zeus, Greeks would travel to Mount Olympia, which was viewed as being Zeus's home or temple. In fact, there was a festival held at this location every four years during which competitive games were played. This tradition, of course, lead to the Olympic games which are still played and honored worldwide today. The temple of Zeus at Mount Olympia was made of ash rather than stone. This ash was taken from the accumulation of many centuries' worth of animal sacrifices that had taken place at that location.
God of the gods and of the sky, pictured with a thunderbolt or lightning in his hand, Zeus was the most powerful god. He had overturned his father Cronus and seized power, and everything was ultimately in his hands. Zeus was a weather god, as well as the protector of the law, the state, the society, the city, the family and strangers.

Zeus main shrine was in Dodona, where it was believed one could hear the future being told by the wind blowing through the the leafs of the holy oaktrees that grew there. In Olympia he was honoured every four years with the Olympic Games and Phidias statue of him there was considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.  The Nemean Games were also held in his honour. The birds, especially the eagle, were believed to be Zeus messengers and so his priests were careful to try and foretell the future through the birds flight. Mountains were often named after Zeus and still today there are mountains of Zeus all over Greece, for example on Crete and Naxos.
On Crete Zeus was especially worshipped since it was believed he grew up there, in hiding from his father who would have eaten him had he known of Zeus existence. On Crete his worshippers believed he was born there, and that he also died there. There was even a tomb there said to be his.The name Zeus is believed to originate in the Sanskrit dyaus which means heaven. The ancient Greeks also called him Dias, and this name has through the Latin Deus become a common word for God in many languages.

Apart from being the highest God, Zeus was also a mischievous one. Constantly unfaithful to his jealous wife and sister Hera, Zeus had many children with other women, both mortal and immortal. With Hera he had Ares, Hebe, Hephaestus and Eileithyia.

In the guise of a swan he had seduced queen Leda of Sparta, and she bore Helen of Troy and Polydeukes as a result. As a bull he kidnapped the Phoenician princess Europa and she gave birth to Minos and Rhadamanthus.

What is Anthropomorphism?

Anthropomorphism (Greek anthropos,"human being"; morphe,"shape") is the attribution of human form or qualities to that which is not human. In the history of religion, anthropomorphism refers to the depiction of God in a human image, with human bodily form and emotions, such as jealousy, wrath, or love. Whereas mythology is exclusively concerned with anthropomorphic gods, other religious thought holds that it is inappropriate to regard an omnipotent, omnipresent God as human. In order to speak of God, however, metaphorical language must be employed. In philosophy and theology, seemingly anthropomorphic concepts and language are used because it is impossible to think of God without attributing to him some human traits. In the Bible, for example, God is endowed with physical characteristics and human emotions, but at the same time he is understood to be transcendent. In art and literature, anthropomorphism is the depiction of natural objects, such as animals or plants, as talking, reasoning, sentient, humanlike beings.

The earliest critique of anthropomorphism in the West was made by Xenophanes, a Greek philosopher of the 5th century BC. Xenophanes observed that whereas the Ethiopians represented the gods as dark-skinned, the northerners in Thrace depicted the gods with red hair and blue eyes. He concluded that anthropomorphic representations of the gods invariably reveal more about the human beings who make them than they reveal about the divine. The Greek philosopher Plato likewise objected to a human representation of the gods; in the dialogue The Republic, he particularly opposed the attribution of human failings to divine beings. Both Xenophanes and Plato wished to purify religion by eliminating elements that they considered primitive and crude.Nineteenth-century German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel held that Greek anthropomorphic religion represented an improvement over the worship of gods in the shape of animals, a practice called theriomorphism (Greek therion,"animal"; morphe,"shape"). Hegel also maintained that Christianity brought the notion of anthropomorphism to maturity by insisting not only that God assumed a human form, but also that Jesus Christ was both a fully human person as well as fully divine. Because Christianity incorporates humanity into the very nature of divinity, it has been accused of anthropomorphism by both Jewish and Islamic thinkers.

Anthropomorphism is a form of personification that gives human characteristics to non-humans, primarily the gods or animals. It is used in religions, literature, and has everyday uses as well. In many ways, anthropomorphism may be seen as a way to make things that are unfamiliar seem more familiar.  The gods of many ancient religions were given distinctly human characteristics. For example, the Ancient Greek gods were subject to intense anthropomorphism, making them human, but as well, divine. The quarreling of the gods on Mount Olympus exhibited many human characteristics and motivations: jealousy, greed, lust, and deception. Many of these quarrels can be dated to more primitive religions attempting to incorporate the religious beliefs of different areas in Greece. However they also serve the purpose of making the gods seem very human. In fact, some of the gods, particularly Zeus, even fall in love with people, suggesting the gods are very close to humans.
In literature, there are hundreds of examples of anthropomorphism. Children’s books are quite often examples of anthropomorphism. The television series and book series Arthur is one example. The early books in the Arthur series illustrate Arthur as an aardvark. Later additions to the series have minimized Arthur’s nose to the point where he appears almost human.
The impetus behind such anthropomorphism is to write a story that will be visually appealing and perhaps less threatening. Also, one can tell a story without representing race, so it is suitable to all children. The goal is not to make the animals more familiar, but instead to draw children to the page. However, in the most recent books to the series, the lack of animal features, except for the occasional pair of bunny ears or moose antlers has made the anthropomorphism of the animals less interesting.
Writers for adults have used anthropomorphism with great effect. Sometimes using animals may help couch controversial issues. For example, George Orwell’s Animal Farm is an exploration of dictatorship and a criticism of socialism. Mark Twain, in his short story “A Dog’s Tale,” deliberately tells the story from a dog’s point of view in order to criticize humans’ behavior to animals.
Watership Down is one of the classic examples of anthropomorphism. Rabbits are used to illustrate the hero’s journey. They have discreet and separate personalities, a religion, and a desire to form a utopian rabbit society. The novel uses anthropomorphism without being a rhetorical argument in most cases. Anthropomorphism simply allows the tale to be told from an other than human viewpoint.
People frequently use anthropomorphism when describing animals, especially pets. Dressing a dog in sweaters, or attributing human emotions to animals can become a bit excessive. Though it is clear animals have some emotions, they may not be exactly human emotions.
Pet lovers tend to see expression of emotions in animals as a clear sign of their human qualities. It can be deeply disturbing for young children, particularly, to see a cat that is loving and sweet act on instinct and kill a baby bird. The danger of anthropomorphizing pets is that we may ignore some of their true signals by exerting and believing in their “humanity.” In general, however anthropomorphism serves as a way to illustrate points, or to facilitate our understanding of things that seem foreign. However, viewing the world from an entirely anthropomorphized perspective may cause some human-centered blindness since it fails to take into account the perspective of beings we do not thoroughly understand.
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The term (not found in the Bible, derived from Greek anthropos, man, and morphe, form) designates the view which conceives of God as having human form (Exod. 15:3; Num. 12:8) with feet (Gen. 3:8; Exod. 24:10), hands (Exod. 24:11; Josh. 4:24), mouth (Num. 12:8; Jer. 7:13), and heart (Hos. 11:8), but in a wider sense the term also includes human attributes and emotions (Gen. 2:2; 6:6; Exod. 20:5; Hos. 11:8).

This tendency toward anthropomorphism, common to all religions, found such full expression in Greek polytheism that the common man thought of the gods as mortal men. Xenophanes (ca. 570-480 B.C.) reacted strongly, accusing man of making the gods in his own image. Later developments in Greek thought considered men as mortal gods (an early form of humanism) or viewed God in the metaphysical sense of pure, absolute Being. The transcendentalism of the latter influenced the hellenistic Jews of Egypt so that the translators of the Greek OT, the LXX, made during the third and second centuries B.C., felt compelled to alter some of the anthropomorphisms. e.g., where the Hebrew reads "they saw the God of Israel" (Exod. 24:10) the LXX has "they saw the place where the God of Israel stood"; and for "I will speak with him mouth to mouth" (Num. 12:8) the LXX translates "I will speak to him mouth to mouth apparently."

However, the OT, if read with empathy and understanding, reveals a spiritual development which is a corrective for either a crude, literalistic view of anthropomorphism or the equally false abhorrence of any anthropomorphic expressions. The "image of God" created in man (Gen. 1:27) was in the realm of personality, of spirit, not of human form. Because the Israelites "saw no form" (Deut. 4:12) at Sinai, they were prohibited images in any form; male or female, beast, bird, creeping thing, or fish (Deut. 4:15-19). The NT declaration of Jesus, "God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth" (John 4:24), is anticipated by Job 9:32; Ps. 50:21; and Hos. 11:9.

The anthropomorphism of the Israelites was an attempt to express the nonrational aspects of religious experience (the mysterium tremendum, "aweful majesty," discussed by Rudolf Otto) in terms of the rational, and the early expressions of it were not as "crude" as so-called enlightened man would have one think. The human characteristics of Israel's God were always exalted, while the gods of their Near Eastern neighbors shared the vices of men. Whereas the representation of God in Israel never went beyond anthropomorphism, the gods of the other religions assumed forms of animals, trees, stars, or even a mixture of elements. Anthropomorphic concepts were "absolutely necessary if the God of Israel was to remain a God of the individual Israelite as well as of the people as a whole.... For the average worshipper...it is very essential that his god be a divinity who can sympathize with his human feelings and emotions, a being whom he can love and fear alternately, and to whom he can transfer the holiest emotions connected with memories of father and mother and friend" (W. F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity, 2nd ed., p. 202).

It is precisely in the area of the personal that theism, as expressed in Christianity, must ever think in anthropomorphic terms. To regard God solely as Absolute Being or the Great Unknown is to refer to him or it, but to think of God as literally personal, one with whom we can fellowship, is to say Thou. Some object to this view, to explain how the creatures of an impersonal force became personal human beings conscious of their personality.

"To say that God is completely different from us is as absurd as to say that he is completely like us" (D. E. Trueblood, Philosophy of Religion, p. 270). Paradoxical as it may seem, there is a mediating position which finds the answer in the incarnation of Jesus the Christ, who said, "He who has seen me has seen the Father" (John 14:9). Finite man will ever cling to the anthropomorphism of the incarnation and the concept of God as Father (Matt. 7:11), but at the same time he will realize the impossibility of absolute, complete comprehension of God, for "my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, says the Lord" (Isa. 55:8).

D M Beegle
(Elwell Evangelical Dictionary)

Bibliography
W. Eichrodt, Theology of the OT, I; J. Hempel, "Die Grenzen des Anthropormorphismus Jahwes im Alten Testament: ein Vortrag," ZAW 57: 75ff.; G. D. Hicks, The Philosophical Bases of Theism; R. Otto, The Idea of the Holy; H. H. Rowley, The Faith of Israel; H. B. Swete, An Introduction to the OT in Greek.

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Anthropomorphism, Anthropomorphites

Catholic Information

(anthropos, man, and morphe, form).

A term used in its widest sense to signify the tendency of man to conceive the activities of the external world as the counterpart of his own. A philosophic system which borrows its method from this tendency is termed Philosophic Anthropomorphism. The word, however, has been more generally employed to designate the play of that impulse in religious thought. In this sense, Anthropomorphism is the ascription to the Supreme Being of the form, organs, operations, and general characteristics of human nature. This tendency is strongly manifested in primitive heathen religions, in all forms of polytheism, especially in the classic paganism of Greece and Rome. The charge of Anthropomorphism was urged against the Greeks by their own philosopher, Xenophanes of Colophon. The first Christian apologists upbraided the pagans for having represented God, who is spiritual, as a mere magnified man, subject to human vices and passions. The Bible, especially the Old Testament, abounds in anthropomorphic expressions. Almost all the activities of organic life are ascribed to the Almighty. He speaks, breathes, sees, hears; He walks in the garden; He sits in the heavens, and the earth is His footstool. It must, however, be noticed that in the Bible locutions of this kind ascribe human characteristics to God only in a vague, indefinite way. He is never positively declared to have a body or a nature the same as man's; and human defects and vices are never even figuratively attributed to Him. The metaphorical, symbolical character of this language is usually obvious. The all-seeing Eye signifies God's omniscience; the everlasting Arms His omnipotence; His Sword the chastisement of sinners; when He is said to have repented of having made man, we have an extremely forcible expression conveying His abhorrence of sin. The justification of this language is found in the fact that truth can be conveyed to men only through the medium of human ideas and thoughts, and is to be expressed only in language suited to their comprehension. The limitations of our conceptual capacity oblige us to represent God to ourselves in ideas that have been originally drawn from our knowledge of self and the objective world. The Scriptures themselves amply warn us against the mistake of interpreting their figurative language in too literal a sense. They teach that God is spiritual, omniscient, invisible, omnipresent, ineffable. Insistence upon the literal interpretation of the metaphorical led to the error of the Anthropomorphites. Throughout the writings of the Fathers the spirituality of the Divine Nature, as well as the inadequacy of human thought to comprehend the greatness, goodness, and infinite perfection of God, is continually emphasized. At the same time, Catholic philosophy and theology set forth the idea of God by means of concepts derived chiefly from the knowledge of our own faculties, and our mental and moral characteristics. We reach our philosophic knowledge of God by inference from the nature of various forms of existence, our own included, that we perceive in the Universe. All created excellence, however, falls infinitely short of the Divine perfections, consequently our idea of God can never truly represent Him as He is, and, because He is infinite while our minds are finite, the resemblance between our thought and its infinite object must always be faint. Clearly, however, if we would do all that is in our power to make our idea, not perfect, but as worthy as it may be, we must form it by means of our conceptions of what is highest and best in the scale of existence that we know. Hence, as mind and personality are the noblest forms of reality, we think most worthily of God when we conceive Him under the attributes of mind, will, intelligence, personality. At the same time, when the theologian or philosopher employs these and similar terms with reference to God, he understands them to be predicated not in exactly the same sense that they bear when applied to man, but in a sense controlled and qualified by the principles laid down in the doctrine of analogy.

A few decades ago thinkers and writers of the Spencerian and other kindred schools seldom touched upon the doctrine of a personal God without designating it Anthropomorphism, and thereby, in their judgment, excluding it definitively from the world of philosophic thought. Though on the wane, the fashion has not yet entirely disappeared. The charge of Anthropomorphism can be urged against our way of thinking and speaking of God by those only who, despite the protestations of theologians and philosophers, persist in assuming that terms are used univocally of God and of creatures. When arguments are offered to sustain the imputation, they usually exhibit an incorrect view regarding the essential element of personality. The gist of the proof is that the Infinite is unlimited, while personality essentially involves limitation; therefore, to speak of an Infinite Person is to fall into an absurdity. What is truly essential in the concept of personality is, first, individual existence as opposed to indefiniteness and to identity with other beings; and next, possession, or intelligent control of self. To say that God is personal is to say that He is distinct from the Universe, and that He possesses Himself and His infinite activity, undetermined by any necessity from within or from without. This conception is perfectly compatible with that of infinity. When the agnostic would forbid us to think of God as personal, and would have us speak of Him as energy, force, etc., he merely substitutes lower and more imperfect conceptions for a higher one, without escaping from what he terms Anthropomorphism, since these concepts too are derived from experience. Besides, he offers violence to human nature when, as sometimes happens, he asks us to entertain for an impersonal Being, conceived under the mechanical types of force or energy, sentiments of reverence, obedience, and trust. These sentiments come into play only in the world of persons, and cannot be exercised towards a Being to whom we deny the attributes of personality.

Anthropomorphites (Audians)

A sect of Christians that arose in the fourth century in Syria and extended into Scythia, sometimes called Audians, from their founder, Audius. Taking the text of Genesis, i, 27, literally, Audius held that God has a human form. The error was so gross, and, to use St. Jerome's expression (Epist. vi, Ad Pammachium), so absolutely senseless, that it showed no vitality. Towards the end of the century it appeared among some bodies of African Christians. The Fathers who wrote against it dismiss it almost contemptuously. In the time of Cyril of Alexandria, there were some anthropomorphites among the Egyptian monks. He composed a short refutation of their error, which he attributed to extreme ignorance. (Adv. Anthrop. in P.G., LXXVI.) Concerning the charges of anthropomorphism preferred against Melito, Tertullian, Origen, and Lactantius, see the respective articles. The error was revived in northern Italy during the tenth century, but was effectually suppressed by the bishops, notably by the learned Ratherius, Bishop of Verona.

Who is Hades?

While many people tend to think of Hades as a place of punishment, the fact is that Greek mythology has a completely different application for the term. Hades is understood to be the Greek god who eventually won the right to be named the god of the underworld, and the chief caretaker of the abode of the dead. Here is some background on Hades, and the role he played within the pantheonAccording to the legends of the Greeks, Hades was not originally the ruler of the underworld. Ancient beings known as the Titans were in control of all known creation. However, three brothers challenged their sovereign rule of all things. Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades determined that they were to be the rightful rulers of the three main sections of all things, namely the underworld, the sky, and the sea. The three brothers engaged in war with the Titans, eventually defeating them. At this juncture, the victors chose to assume specific areas that each brother would oversee. Hades was the brother who chose the task of overseeing the underworld, and ruling over the spirits of those who had died and crossed over into the next life.
Hades at times has been portrayed as a fearsome figure, designed to strike terror into the hearts of mean. Within this version of Hades, the god is one who is ready to punish the wicked for the lightest infraction, and delights in administering justice that is not tempered with mercy. Often, this concept of Hades was used to bring persons who were involved in activities that were considered on the fringe of acceptable traditions and morals to abandon those practices, and engage in rites that were meant to win the favor of all the gods, including Hades.
At other times, Hades has been portrayed as the merciful and just ruler of the underworld, seeing to the needs of both those dwelling in a state of happiness and paradise, as well as those who have been damned. This concept of Hades is sometimes attributed to reading between the lines in the tales of Greek mythology, especially in instances when the god appears to offer persons a chance to step back and reverse a wrong action taken. of Greek gods. 

Although Hades (the Unseen One) is an Olympian god, he is the Lord of the Underworld and ruler of the dead. Hades is not the god of death, however -- that's Thanatos. Hades rules those given proper funeral rites and brought over by Charon. Hades complained about Apollo's son, the healer Asclepius because he restored people to life, thereby reducing Hades' dominions. Hades inflicted Thebes with plague probably because they weren't burying the slain and therefore were denying bodies for Hades to have dominion over.

The name Hades is generally applied to the realm of the Underworld: Hades = Hades' realm.
Hades is feared and hated. An oath taken on his name is especially binding.
There are few stories about Hades since he spends most of his time among the non-living.

Occupation:

God

Family of Hades:

Hades was a son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. His brothers are Zeus and Poseidon. Hestia, Hera, and Demeter are Hades' sisters.

Children of Hades

• The Erinyes (Furies),
• Zagreus (Dionysus), and
• Makaria (goddess of a blessed death)

Other Names for Hades:

Sometimes people say Pluto is the Roman equivalent of Hades, but Pluto was a god of wealth, not of the Underworld. Sometimes, however, the Greeks themselves called Hades Plouton (Pluto is the Latin for the Greek word Plouton), so it seems prissy to demand greater precision. (More on the names Hades, Pluto, and Dis.) Hades is also called Haides, Aides, Aidoneus, Zeus Katachthonios (Zeus under the earth), and Orcus (Roman).

Persephone:

Hades is best known for abducting Demeter's daughter Persephone, keeping her with him in the Underworld where no one knew where she was, and then, when found out, tricking her into eating some pomegranate seeds. By eating in the land of Hades, Persephone was bound to Hades. A deal was made to let Persephone join her mother half the year, but she always returns.

Attributes:

Hades is shown as a dark-bearded man, with a crown, scepter, and key. He has a three-headed dog (Cerberus). Hades has a helmet of invisibility and a chariot.